ITS OF 

FPPLY COMPANY 




NATURAL GAS SERVICE 

« 

BY 

SAMUEL S. WYER, M. E. 

Consulting Engineer, Columbus, Ohio 
Members 

American Society Mechanical Engineers. 

American Institute Minins Engineers. • 

AMERICAN ACADEMY POLITICAL AND SOCIAL SCIENCE, 

AUTHOR; 

producer Gas and Gas Producers 

REGULATION, VALUATION AND DEPRECIATION OF PUBLIC UTILITIES. 


Gas Measuring 
Station at Gates of Town 


JOO LBS. 





Low Pressure Regulator 


We may live without friends; 
We may live without books: 

But civilized man cannot. 
Live without cooks. ,. 


Service 


Gas Meter 
























CHEAPNESS OF FIFTY CENT NATURAL GAS SERVICE. 


Fifty-cent natural gas service used for lighting is only: 

60% of cost of electricity at 5c per K. W. in Tungsten lamp; 

artificial gas at $1 per “M” in mantle; 
gasoline at 18c per gal.; 

“ electricity at 5c per K. W. in carbon lamp; 
coal oil at 12c per gal.; 
acetylene with carbide at 4c per lb.; 
artifical gas at $1 per “M” in flat flame burner. 


50% 

50% 

23% 

20 % 

20 % 

19% 


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Fifty-cent natural gas service used for cooking and heating is only: 


50% 

32% 

32% 

9% 

3J^% 


of cost of coal oil at 12c per gal.; 

M " " gasoline at 18c per gal.; 

“ “ “ artificial gas at $1 per “M”; 

** “ denatured alcohol at 40c per gal.; 

“ " “ electricity at 5c per K. W. 



Two OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS AND SEVERAL 
SECTIONS OF THE TEXT USED HEREIN ARE 
ADAPTED FROM. AND USED WITH THE PERMIS¬ 
SION of The Sears & Simpson Co., pub¬ 
lishers of Wyer’s Regulation Valuation 
and Depreciation of Public Utilities. 


Copyrighted 1913 by Samuel S. Wyer. 


Published by The Sears & Simpson Co. 
Columbus, Ohio. 

June. 1913. 

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Natural Gas Service. 



What Is Natural Gas? This is a highly combustible gas made 
by a secret process of nature; is the most perfect fuel known, and has 
never been equaled by any man-made product. It is not a chemical 
compound, as popularly supposed, but a mechanical mixture of sev¬ 
eral gases, the number and exact proportions—of the various con¬ 
stituents—varying somewhat for the different localities and during 
the working lives of individual wells. 

What Natural Gas Does for a City. The smoke nuisance in the 
average city is not caused primarily by the factory, but by the total 
smoke from the homes. Smoke prevention appliances cannot be used 
in the home as they can in the factory, and the solution of the smoke 
problem depends upon the burning of gas instead of solid fuels in 
homes, as so well stated by Mayor Baker in the following: 

“While we have in a great many ways endeavored to abate 
the smoke nuisance by ordinary means, yet I realize that no one 
thing has contributed so enormously to our success in that regard 
as natural gas at a figure that competes fairly easy with many of 
the uses for which soft coal was previously utilized. I know 
that so far as the city of Cleveland is concerned, it is very doubt¬ 
ful whether anything has ever happened in this city,—any one 
thi ng—which did more for its prosperity, did more for its beauty, 
did more for the convenience, the comfort, the happiness, and 
perhaps the health of the people who live here, than the intro¬ 
duction of natural gas.” (1) 

Gas Meters. 

“The public has a marked feeling of distrust for the gas 
meter. To the average man it is simply a machine for mak¬ 
ing large gas bills. The fact, however, is that the gas meter 
is merely a measuring device that stands between the gas 
company and the gas consumer, registering more or less ac¬ 
curately the amount of gas that passes through it. Further¬ 
more, like all man-made appliances, the gas meter will get 
out of adjustment, and when out of adjustment it will register 
too fast or too slow, the former to the detriment of the con¬ 
sumer, and the latter to the detriment of the gas company. 

It is impossible to keep a gas meter in continuous actual 
working condition that will be absolutely accurate, and the 
consensus of expert opinion allows a range of from two to 
three per cent either fast or slow. All meters coming within 
this limitation are regarded as practically correct.” (2) 

(1) Hon. Newton D. Baker. Mayor of Cleveland, Ohio,, in address before 

Natural Gas Association of America, Cleveland, Ohio, May 20, 1913. 

(2) Report on Natural Gas Service Rendered the City of Columbus, Ohio. 
By Consulting Engineers E. A. Hitchcock and Samuel S. Wyer, p. 28. 

1 


) 




Domestic Gas Meter Construction. An ordinary gas meter with 
covers removed is shown at the right. This measures the gas pass¬ 
ing through it by alternately filling and discharging flexible pockets, 
or diaphragms, that work 
on the same principle as 
the old-fashioned hand- 
bellows used about fire¬ 
places. One of these 
leather diaphragms is 
shown extended at the 
front of the illustration. 

Each leather diaphragm 
receives a definite quan¬ 
tity of gas and then ex¬ 
pels it, having the same 
stroke every time. By 
means of the clock work 
shown at the top, each 
stroke of the diaphragm 
is registered in terms of 
cubic feet on the dial, the 
diaphragms receiving 
their power from the 
pressure of the gas on 
the intake side of the me- 
tc r 

Internal Construction of Domestic Gas Meter 


Gas Meter Facts. The following facts regarding gas meters 
should be borne in mind by gas users: 

1. “Gas meters have no power within themselves to register. 
The only way they can be made to register is by the passage of 
gas through the meter. The gas company has absolutely nothing 
to do with the operation, nor can it in any way control the reg¬ 
istration of the meter. However, many times gas meters register 
when gas is not being used, due to leakage in house fixtures. 

2. “The gas consumption will not be increased by the use 
of a large meter.” 

3- “The gas consumption will not be decreased by the use 
of a small meter. In fact, if the meter is too small the gas 
service will be unsatisfactory.” 

4. “Gas bills are not made out regardless of gas consump¬ 
tion. While it is possible for the meter reader to make an error 
for one month, this will be automatically rectified in the reading 
of the following month.” 

5. “High gas pressure does not increase the rate of regis¬ 
tration of meter.” 


2 



6. “Low gas pressure does not decrease the rate of regis¬ 
tration of the gas meter.” 

7. “It is impossible for a gas meter to register twice. When 
the gas has passed through the meter it cannot pass through the 
second time.” 

8. “Meters do not always register fast. There are times 
when they register slow, and this is to the detriment of the gas 
company.” (1) 


Testing Gas Meters. This is done by simply passing a certain 
number of cubic feet of air or gas through the meter from a gas 
prover, as shown below, the prover being first tested and sealed by 
the State Sealer of Weights and Measures. 


( 1 ) 



Gas Meter Prover 

Report on Natural Gas Service Rendered the City of Columbus, Ohio. 
By Consulting Engineers E. A. Hitchcock and Samuel S. Wyer, p. 29. 


3 




































Average Monthly Gas Bills. The following tabulation, based on 
natural gas at 30c net per 1,000 cu. ft. emphasizes a peculiar and al¬ 
most universal mental attitude of natural gas consumers, namely, 
that the only bills that are remembered are the few large ones, the 
mean average for the year being entirely forgotten: 


July .$ .30 

August .60 

September . 1.20 

October . 1.80 

November . .. 2.10 

December . 4.20 

January. 8.40 [ These are the only bills the 

February . 9.00 j consumer remembers. 

March . 3.00 

April . 1.50 

May .60 

June .30 


Total for year.$33.00 


Average for month... 2.75 

The relatively small part that natural gas plays in the average 
family budget is shown on next page. This classification is based on 
large number of studies made by Richards of the Massachusetts 
Institute of Technology, with the natural gas features detailed by the 
author. 

Consumer Is Responsible for Economic Use of Gas. The con¬ 
sumer’s use of gas has an important bearing on the efficiency of the 
results that may be obtained, as illustrated on this page, which shows 
an ordinary skillet over a gas range fire. Few appreciate that, in 
cooking service, for instance, effective results cannot be obtained un¬ 
less the tip of the flame strikes the vessel that is being heated. At 
2, on account of an abnormally strong draft, the flame is deflected; at 
1 the burner is too low, while at 3 the flame conditions are such that 
effective results can be obtained. This has a specially marked effect 
on low pressure conditions which will result in short flames. Under 
such conditions, even though a flame may be short, if it is so placed 
as to properly strike against the cooking vessel, effective results 
may be obtained. It has been demonstrated that under low pressure 
conditions potatoes that could not be started to fry in 30 minutes 
under conditions indicated by 1 and 2, with the same pressure and 
same gas consumption, could be burned to a crisp inside of five min¬ 
utes if the conditions indicated by 3 prevailed. 

USE OF NATURAL GAS FOR COOKING 



Surner too Low Draft too Strong Correcta/vd Dffect/iae 

/ 2 3 


4 















































PERCENTAGE OF 

DIFFERENT FAMILY ANNUAL INCOMES 

SPENT FOR 

NATURAL GAS SERVICE 

ANNUAL INCOMES 

, - * -, 

tf/OOO #300 $300 

TO TO TO 


















































When mantle burners are opened so as to admit more gas 
than is necessary, the familiar “hissing” or blowing sound is produced. 
This has, first, a tendency to break the mantle and chimney; second, 
waste the gas; and third, lowers the candle power of the lamp. 

The majority of natural gas consumers do not appreciate that gas 
burners need care and attention, and that periodic cleaning is abso¬ 
lutely essential if satisfactory results are to be obtained. 

The data in the first and second columns from the right on page 
9 show the marked difference in results that may be obtained by 
using natural gas in an ordinary coal furnace as against an especially 
built natural gas furnace. The author has made tests under actual 
routine working conditions which show that an auxiliary natural gas 
furnace, built especially for natural gas, may be installed alongside of 
an ordinary coal furnace and the heated air from the auxiliary furnace 
turned into the shell of the coal furnace without disturbing the hot 
air pipes of the coal furnace and at the same time secure an efficiency 
of at least twice that which can be secured from burning natural gas 
in an ordinary coal furnace. 



Gas Compressing Station at Sugar Grove, Ohio 


Effect of Gas Fumes on Air. The average gas user does not 
appreciate the large volume of air necessary and large volume of 
combustion products given off in the burning of natural gas as shown 
on next page, and the resulting necessity of proper ventilation if satis¬ 
factory results are to be expected. Carbon dioxide and steam are 
always formed when gas is burned, the relative amount of each being 
dependent on the chemical composition of the particular gas. If safe 
and hygienic conditions are to be maintained in rooms heated by 
gas fires, chimney provision must be made for the removal of the 
combustion products. The so-called odorless, smoke-consuming and 
chimneyless gas heating appliances are not only frauds, but also a 
positive menace to health, and ought never be used. The retaining 
of the combustion products in the room produces a cold and clammy 
sensation that frequently causes the consumer to erroneously blame 
the gas service. 


6 













COMBUSTION OF NATURAL GAS 



High Gas Bills. The cause of real and alleged high gas bills may 
be as follows: 

1. Leakage in house piping. 

<. 

2. Ineffective application or use of gas by consumer. 

3. Dirty gas-using appliances. 

4. Improper adjustment of gas mixers. 

5. Carelessness in allowing gas fixtures to remain open when 
gas is not needed. 

6. Retaining combustion products in room, thereby producing 
a cold and clammy atmosphere- 

7. Change of dates of meter readings. 

8. Meters will always record abnormal amounts of gas used 

even though consumer may forget such abnormal gas de¬ 
mands by time gas bill is paid. 

9. Inadequate pressure. 

10. Fast meters. 

Gas is Neither Light nor Heat. The gas simply acts as a carrier 
of heat energy. The consumer’s sole object in buying gas service 
is to get the heat energy that the gas carries. Furthermore, in the 
burning of gas it is physically, chemically and practically impossible 
to produce heat without evolving light, or to produce light without 
producing heat simultaneously. 

The introduction of the incandescent mantle, of which the Wels- 
bach is a well-known type, has practically revolutionized gas illumi¬ 
nating methods. In the incandescent mantle, the illumination does 
not come from the gas, but instead is produced by the incandescence 


7 





















































of the mantle, resulting from the high temperature produced by the 
combustion of the gas. This mantle has made it possible to secure 
better illumination from the non-luminous natural gas than was ever 
possible with any artificial gas, as shown in the third column from 
the right on p. 9. The data on p. 9 show that natural gas can do 
everything that artificial gas need do, and several things that artificial 
gas cannot do. 

Natural Gas Service Characteristics. These may be summarized 
as follows: 

1. Public does not appreciate true value of natural gas service 
as compared with other heating and lighting services or 
heating and lighting commodities. 

2. Public does not appreciate large investment necessary to 
transmit gas from the gas field to the consumer's premises. • 

3- Depletion of all gas fields is very rapid. 

4. Useful commercial life of plant is limited by commercial life 
of gas fields. 

5. Company has no control whatever over quantity or quality 
of gas supply, and is entirely at Nature's mercy. 

6. Investment hazard is greater than that of any other utility. 

7. Fixed charges are larger than for any other utility. 

8. Large variation in daily loads—see p. 10. 

9. Large variation in seasonal loads—see p. 11. 

10. Must make large investment that is used only for a short 
period each year to take care of the peak load service. 

11. Must carry large investment in non-productive leased 
ground in order to be able to maintain an adequate reserve 
supply of gas for future use. 

12. Underground structures represent major part of investment- 

13. Shrinkage in volume of gas, due to leakage in transmitting 
from gas field to consumer, is enormous. 

14. Liability for gas explosions from leaks in plant. 

15. Each new consumer requires an additional investment. 

16. Most rate schedules have ignored relative worth of natural 

gas service, as shown on p. 9. 


8 


Relative Heat Unit and Candle Power Hour Cost 


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Natural Gas a Service, Not a Commodity. The primary object 
of a natural gas company is to render a service rather than furnish 
a commodity. To consider the gas merely as a commodity is fun¬ 
damentally wrong. 

The distinction between rendering a service and manufacturing 
a commodity is an important one. The commodity may be manu¬ 
factured at a uniform rate of production and then placed in storage 
until it can be sold to advantage. A service must be used at the 
moment it is offered or it will become forever useless. The load 
data below emphasize the erratic nature of natural gas loads and the 
many opportunities for rendering services that are never used. 

TYPICAL HOURLY NATURAL GAS 
LOAD IN WINTER 



/2 / 2 3 4-36 7 & 9 /O // /2 / 23436 7 & 9 /O // /£ 

fi/OO /V 


T/ME 


10 





































































MONTHLY DOMESTIC LOAD 
OF NATURAL GAS CO. 



Peak Load Service. Abnormal peaks of very short duration 
are characteristic of all natural gas loads, as shown on p. 10. This 
necessitates a large investment for equipment that is actually used 
only a very short period out of each year. Even though the peak 
load equipment is used for a few hours out of each year, the invest¬ 
ment must be made to render the service and adequate returns must 

be made on the investment. 


11 











































Peak Loads Increase Cost of Service. An increase of volume of 
business can decrease the cost of production only when the increment 
of increase is distributed so as to make possible the more efficient 
use of existing equipment. When the increment of increase is con¬ 
centrated so as to require more equipment, as is the case in all 
peak loads, the cost of production per unit of service is increased. 
Therefore, the cost of peak load natural gas service is greater than 
the cost of normal service. A rate schedule, to be equitable to all 
consumers of natural gas, must make the consumers who need and 
create the peak load service pay a price that will be commensurate 
with the extra cost of the service they are receiving. 

House heating furnace services not only produce marked peaks 
each day, but the consumption is limited to relatively a short period 
out of each year. For this reason house heating furnace service 
costs more than ordinary gas service. 

Distinction Between Luxury and Necessity in Natural Gas 
Service. To the average family for cooking, hot water boiler heating, 
lighting and incidental house heating service, natural gas is a neces¬ 
sity, but when used in larger quantities, or for house heating furnace 
work it becomes a luxury. Furthermore, the peak load characteristics 
of house heating furnace service makes this service cost more to the 
natural gas company. An equitable schedule of rates ought, there¬ 
fore, to provide for a fixed net price per thousand cubic feet for a 
large enough monthly consumption to permit of the cooking, hot 
water boiler heating, lighting and incidental house heating service 
necessary to the average family. If this fixed consumption is ex¬ 
ceeded, then the price per thousand cubic feet for such excess con¬ 
sumption ought to be increased so as to make the consumer pay 
for the higher priced service he is receiving. 

Readiness to Serve.—An important characteristic of natural gas 
is that the service must be available for instantaneous delivery. Each 
patron, whether he uses much or little of the available service, enjoys 
the benefit of the ready service always at hand and ready to be 
used, and if on a meter basis, paid for only when used. 

Gas Leakage in Homes. In order to ascertain how much gas is 
wasted in the premises of the average consumer, some time ago the 
author made tests at representative houses to determine accurately the 
amount of gas that passed through the meter when no gas was being 
used on the premises by the consumer. The rate of leakage was such 
that it would amount to much more in each home per annum than 
is ordinarily appreciated. 


12 



Laying Gas Lines Across Ohio River 


Explosibility of Natural! Gas. In natural gas engine work it is 
important to note that mixtures of natural gas and air are explosive 
within only a small range. The mixture cannot be exploded if more 
than 95 per cent, or less than 88 per cent of air is present, the most 
sensitive mixture being with about 91*4 per cent of air. 

Worth of Natural Gas As a Heating Service. The relative 
worths of various heating commodities and services are shown in the 
first and fourth columns from the right on p. 9. The efficiencies 
given in the second column from the right are based on actual tests 
under routine operating conditions. These show, first the desirability 
of using a special natural gas furnace for house heating service, and 
second, that with such a furnace, $4.00 bituminous coal and 50c 


13 









natural gas are equivalents, so far as the cost is concerned, without 
considering the many advantages of gaseous fuel over soft coal, such 
as the absence of handling ashes, elimination of operating labor, 
easier control of fire, and freedom from soot 

Lack of Appreciation of Natural Gas Service. 

1. The average price of artificial gas in the United States is 
over 85c per thousand cubic feet. 

2. Natural gas, on a heating value basis, volume for volume, is 
worth 50 per cent more than artificial gas. 

3. The developed natural gas supplies of this country are 
capable of serving less than 8 per cent of the inhabitants; 
hence the undeveloped gas selling territory for this best of 
all of nature’s fuels is almost unlimited. 

In the face of the features just mentioned, many state and muni¬ 
cipal legislators and utility commissions are attempting to lower 
natural gas rates and impose other onerous and useless burdens upon 
natural gas companies. A typical illustration of the inevitable result 
of this is shown by the red lines on p. 16, which indicate a pipe line 
that will take gas from West Virginia and Ohio, through Ohio to a 
group of Indiana towns that appreciate the worth of natural gas. 





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Eight 1200 H. P. Natural Gas Compressors at Homer, Licking County, Ohio 


14 





































Gas Line Approach to Ohio River Crossing 

For structural reasons six 10" lines are used to carry the gas under the river from the one 18" line. 

Economy of the Natural Gas Engine. The cost relation of 
seven typical 50-H. P. plants running 3,000 hours per annum at 2/3 
load, is shown in the following: 



Natural 

Gas 

Engine 

Fuel Oil 
Engine 

Producer 
Gas Eng. 
HardCoal 

Steam 
on Gas 

Steam 
on Coal 

Gasoline 

Engine 

Electric 

Motor 

Price of Fuel. 

40c. M. 

5c. Gal. 

$7 Ton 

13c. M. 

$2 Ton 

16c. Gal. 

3c. k. w. 

H. P. Hrs. Per Annum. 

100000 

100000 

100000 

100000 

100000 

100000 

100000 

Fuel per Brake H. P. hr. 

14 cu. ft. 

.12 Gal. 

1.125 lb. 

80 cu. ft. 

10. lb. 

.16 Gal. 

1 k. w. 

Amount of Fuel. 

1400 M. 

12000 Gal. 

62.5 T. 

8000 M. 

500 T. 

16000 Gal. 

iooooo kw 

Cost of Fuel. 

$560 

$600 

$437 

$1,040 

$1,000 

$2,560 

$3,000 

6 per cent Interest. 

105 

180 

210 

120 

120 

108 

48 

10 per cent Depreciation. 

175 

300 

350 

200 

200 

180 

80 

Repairs and Incidentals. 

50 

50 

100 

50 

50 

50 

10 

Labor . 

200 

200 

300 

400 

600 

200 

10 

Total Annual Cost. 

$1000 

$1,330 

$1,397 

$1,810 

$1,970 

$3,098 

$3,148 

Power Cost per H. P. Year_ 

$21.80 

$26.60 

$27.90 

$36.20 

$39.40 

$61.98 

$62.96 

Licensed Engineer. 

No 

No 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

No 

Boiler Inspection. 

No 

No 

No 

Yes 

Yes 

No 

No 


15 































































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NATURAL GAS 
TRANSMISSION 
LINES IN 

OHIO 


20 23 30 . 35 

S CALE - MILES 

































































Hazard in Natural Gas Business. “One who invests his money in 
a business of somewhat hazardous character is very properly held to 
have the right to a larger return without legislative interference 
than can be obtained from an investment in a perfectly safe se¬ 
curity.” (1) 

The hazard in the natural gas business is greater than that for 
any other utility service. The obtaining of natural g*as is essentially 
a mining proposition with, however, more unknown, uncontrollable 
and uncertain features to cope with than exist in the mining of coal 
or other minerals. This is because: 

A. It is more difficult to determine the outline and volume of a 
natural gas formation than it is to make a similar determination 
for coal or other minerals. 

B. By reference to p. 19—which is an exact copy of a typical field— 
it will be seen that the wells of the Blank Natural Gas Co. are 
surrounded by wells of other companies drawing from the same 
pools. This makes it impossible for the Blank Natural Gas Co. 
to hold its supply for future use unless the companies operating 
the adjacent wells would agree to do likewise. This has a marked 
effect in decreasing the life of the pool. 

C. By reference again to p. 19, it is evident that wasteful methods 
of other companies will deplete the supply of the Blank Natural 
Gas Co. 

D. Large investment in gas rights, especially in untried acreage that 
must be held to insure continuous operation. The U. S- Geologi¬ 
cal Survey statistics show that 390 acres of gas territory is con¬ 
trolled for each producing gas well. 

Why Gas Is Compressed. This is merely to expedite transmis¬ 
sion—for the same reason that makes it necessary for the farmer to 
compress cotton, straw or hay for shipment. By increasing the pres¬ 
sure to say 300 lbs. the volume of gas may be contracted to 4.6% of 
what it would be at atmospheric pressure. Thus the carrying capacity 
of a gas line at 300 lbs. is 21 times greater than at atmospheric 
pressure. Without gas compressors the size and number of mains 
that would be required to bring the gas from the field into the cities 
would be so large as to make the investment prohibitive. 

It is unfortunate that the term “pumping station” has come into 
universal use in speaking of gas compressing stations, for the reason 
that the term “pumping” signifies the action of lifting alone, or lifting 
combined with force. In the case of natural gas transmission the work 
is one of pure compression, since the gas is delivered to the gas com¬ 
pressors under an initial pressure considerably higher than the atmos¬ 
pheric pressure, on account of the natural rock pressure forcing the 
gas out from the wells into and through the intake lines to the "com¬ 
pressors. 

(l) Vol 212, p. 49, U. S. Supreme Court Reports. Wilcox vs. Consolidated 
Gas Co. 


18 


MAP OF GAS FIELD 



<► 

☆ 



WELLS FOFN/SF/NO OF5 TO EEANF NFTOFFL OFS CO. 
DFF HOLES 

WELLS OF OTHER COMFFN/ES 

LEASES OWNED 3 F BLANK NA TUFAL OF5 CO. 


scale: 



M/t-ES 


19 












































































Creation of Value by Transmission of Gas. The many steps 
necessary to transmit natural gas from the gas fields to the gas con¬ 
sumer may be seen by holding the outside covers of this pamphlet 
out flat. This naturally also suggests the large fixed investment 
necessary to make possible the rendering of such service, and without 
this the gas in the field is almost valueless. The transmission service 
is therefore a vital factor in determining the cost of the gas service 
to the consumer. 


How Decrease in Rock Pressure Lowers Compressor Capacity. 

The rock pressure of wells has a direct bearing on the intake pressure 
that may be maintained at the gas compressors. The output of a 
typical compressor operating against a discharge pressure of 300 
lbs. gage is as follows, for the respective intake pressures: 


Intake pressure 
above atmosphere. 

150. 

100 . 

75. 

50.. 

30. 

20 .. 


Capacity in cu. ft. free gas 
per 24 hrs., based on 14.4 lbs. 
atmospheric pressure. 

. 30,800,000 

. 20,700,000 

. 15,600,000 

... 10,500,000 

. 6,550,000 

. 4,170,000 



Refrigerating Effect of Expanding 
Natural Gas. When natural gas is al¬ 
lowed to expand from a high to a lower 
pressure the expansion causes an absorp¬ 
tion of heat from and tends to freeze 
surrounding objects. The principle in¬ 
volved is exactly the same as the expansion of ammonia in artificial 
ice plants. It is to counteract this freezing tendency that the gas 
must be heated adjacent to regulators when the pressure is lowered. 


Two Gas Lines on Side of Mountain 
in West Va. 


No Heat Loss in Gas Compression. 

Contrary to a widespread popular 
opinion, the compression of natural gas 
does not decrease its heating value. 
While a certain amount of gas is used to 
drive the compressors, this does not in 
any way affect the heating value of the 
gas passing through the compressors. 
The only shrinkage will be the gasoline 
that condenses in the transmission lines, 
and the percentage thus removed is so 
small, considering the large volume of 
gas handled, as to be negligible. In a 
recent test this gasoline loss was found 
to be less than 1/6 of 1 per cent. In 
view of the preceding facts, the heating 
value per cubic foot of gas at the end of 
the transmission lines will be essentially 
the same as in the gas field. 


20 









Gas Pressure Terms. 1 hese are illustrated in the diagram at 
the right. 

Gage Pressure: This is simply the pressure indicated by a 
pressure gage. 

Barometric Pres¬ 
sure : Atmospheric DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATING 
pressure is meas- Q AS PRESSURE TERMS 

ured by a barometer, 


and is synonymous 
with barometric 
pressure. This must 
b e considered in 
most gas calcula¬ 
tions. 

Absolute 
sure: This 
sum of 
pressure 


Pres- 
is the 
the gage 
and the 


barometric pressure. 
Thus, if the gage 
pressure is 25.3 lbs. 
and the barometric 
pressure is 14.7 lbs., 
the absolute pres¬ 
sure will be 25.3 + 
14.7 == 40 lbs. 


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Differential Pressure: This is simply the difference between 
the pressure at the inlet and outlet of a gas line, as shown in dia- 
gramatic form above. Thus if the inlet gage pressure were 15 
lbs. and the outlet gage pressure 10 lbs-, the differential pressure 
would be 5 lbs. In gas transmission it is necessary to have a high 
differential pressure in order to secure enough driving power to 
force the gas through the main. 

Fluid Gages for Gas Pressure Measurement. Fluid gages are 
also known as manometers, the simplest form of which is the U glass 
tube shown at the right. When no pressure is applied other than the 
prevailing atmospheric pressure, the liquid will stand at the same 
level in both tubes. When 
the gas main is under pres¬ 
sure above the atmosphere, 
the liquid in the tube will 
be lowered. The difference 
in levels is then the fluid 
pressure. The choice of 
fluids is determined by the 
pressure to be observed, the 
fluid of greater density be¬ 
ing required for higher 
pressure. 


GAS PRESSURE MEASURE¬ 
MENT BY FLUID GAGE 



21 





























Effect of Pressure on Gas. For engineering purposes, at a given 
temperature the volume of gas is inversely proportional to the abso¬ 
lute pressure to which the gas is subjected, as shown at the right. 
That is, the product of the absolute pressure and the volume of a 
given amount of gas remains constant. 

Variation in volume of 100 cu. ft. (100%) of gas at constant tem¬ 
perature under various pressures. 


Pressure per 
sq. in. 

0 oz. 

2 “ 

A “ 


1 lb. 

5 “ 
10 “ 
20 “ 
50 “ 
75 “ 
100 “ 
150 “ 
200 “ 
250 “ 
300 “ 
400 “ 


Volume 

100 . 0 % 

99.1 

98.3 

97.5 

96.7 

95.1 

93.6 
74-6 
59.5 

42.3 

22.7 

16.8 

12.8 
8.9 
6.8 

5.5 

4.6 
3.5 


EFFECT OF ABSOLUTE PRES¬ 
SURE ON GAS VOLUME 



This emphasizes the small difference in volume—or relative heat¬ 
ing value—with even several ounces difference of pressure. 

Gas Pressure Unit Equivalents. 

1 in. of water = .073 in- mercury = .57 oz. per sq. in. = .036 lbs. per 


sq. in. 

1 oz. per sq. in. = 1.73 in. water = .127 in. mercury = .062 lbs. per 
sq. in. 

Relation of Pressure and Pipe Diameter. The diameter of a 
main to discharge a given quantity of gas at various pressures varies 
inversely as the fifth root of the pressure. 

Typical relative cost of black 
pipe per 100 ft. exclu¬ 
sive of labor. 


16 lbs. 

requires 

2-in. mam 

9 “ 

a 

2.5-in. “ 

4 “ 

u 

3-in. 

4 oz. 

cc 

5-in. 


...$ 9.00 

. 14.00 

. 18.00 

... 36.00 


Effect of Pressure on Gas Line Flow. The quantity of gas 
carried by a gas line varies directly as the square root of the differ¬ 
ential pressure. Hence, to double the flow in any line it is necessary 
to quadruple the pressure- This has a vital effect on the cost of com¬ 
pressing gas in order to transmit it long distances, thus relatively: 

400 lbs. discharges 5000 cu. ft. 


N 


100 “ 

a 

2500 

ii 

a 

16 “ 

u 

1000 

U 

u 

4 “ 

(C 

500 

u 

u 

1/4 lb. (4 oz.) 

u 

125 

a 

a 


22 




















































































Gas Leakage Laws. 

1. The amount of gas leaking from a pipe system is entirely 
independent of the volume of gas passing through the pipes. In other 
words, under the same conditions of pressure the amount of gas lost 
will be the same during the period of low gas consumption as during 
the period of high gas consumption. 

2. The leakage tendency varies directly as the square root of 
the pressure. Thus, the leakage tendency at 100 lbs. and 4 lbs. will 
be as 5 is to 1. 

Sea Level Rating. The effect of altitude on gas apparatus ca¬ 
pacity is shown in the following: 

» 

Elevation above Barometric pressure Relative capacity 

Sea level in feet in inches of mercury in per cent 


0 


29.92 

29.35 

28.82 

28.30 

27.78 


100 . 

98.9 

96-3 

94.5 

92.5 


500 

1000 

1500 

2000 


Thus, a gas engine rated at 100 H. P. at sea level will produce 
only 92.5 H. P. at 2000 ft. elevation. 

Absolute Temperature. The real starting point in gas activity 
is not the ordinary zero point, but absolute zero, which is 460 degrees 
below zero, or 492 degrees below freezing on the Fahrenheit scale. 
Absolute temperature is therefore the temperature reckoned from 
absolute zero, and is simply the sum of 460 degrees and the observed 
temperature. 

Effect of Temperature on Gas. The volume of any gas free to 
expand, or the pressure of any confined gas increases or decreases 
just as its absolute temperature increases or decreases. Hence, at a 
given constant pressure the volume of a given amount of gas is 
directly proportional to its absolute temperature. 

The volume or pressure will therefore vary approximately 1 per 
cent for each 5 degrees Fah. change. The object of the cooling basin 
shown adjacent to the compressing station on the outside cover of 
this pamphlet is to lower the temperature of the gas so as to decrease 
its volume and thereby increase the carrying capacity of the trans¬ 
mission line. In a typical case the temperature is lowered 120 degrees 
by the cooling water, thus causing a contraction in volume of about 
24 per cent- 

Standard Conditions. Since the volume of natural gas varies 
with the temperature and pressure, in order to secure comparable re¬ 
sults in gas calculations and the establishment of standards, a stand¬ 
ard condition is necessary. This is usually taken at 32° Fah. and a 
pressure of 29.9 inches of mercury, although in many cases 60° Fah. 
is used. 


23 



Calorimeter for Determining Heating Value of Gas 


Dilution of Gas With Air. The following expert opinions show 
that the widespread popular opinion that natural gas is diluted with 
air is without foundation. It is an easy matter to test for this at any 
time by simply determining the heating value of the gas in a calori¬ 
meter, as shown above. The presence of air in the gas would always 
be indicated by the calorimeter showing a heating value below the 
normal. 

“The author has made many independent determinations of the 
oxygen content of gas drawn from the pipe lines, but has never 
found a sufficient amount to indicate that air has been introduced. 

The matter is mentioned here because expression is often given to 
the belief that air is surreptitiously forced into the mains with the 
gas, but no hesitation is felt by the writer in stating that this is never 
done.” (1) 

“This office has had the gas analyzed by the City Chemist from 
time to time; and has also checked over reports from the Chemist 
at the University of Kansas, and cannot find any air or other adul¬ 
terations in the same.” (2) 

(1) Prof. P. F. Walker, Engineering Bulletin No. 2 , published by the Kansas 
Public Utilities Commission, p. 5. 

^ 2 ) Report of Robert W. Goodnow, City Gas Inspector, Kansas City, Mo., 
p. 13. 


24 






















“We are using natural gas and have examined the gas twice a 
month for about three years, and have never been able to detect air in 
the natural gas at Pittsburg.” (3) 

“We have found that the popular idea that the Company delib¬ 
erately dilutes with air the gas in the gas fields is not based on 
facts.” (4) 


Heat Unit. The heat required to raise one pound of water one 
degree Fah* is called a British thermal unit, and abbreviated B. t. u. 

Heating Value. This is the number of heat units that are 
evolved by the combustion of a unit weight or volume of fuel. The 
terms “calorific value,” “calorific power,” “heating power,” “thermal 
value” and “heat of combustion” are frequently applied to the same 
phenomenon. 


The heating value of gas may be determined experimentally by 
means of an apparatus known as a calorimeter, which is shown on 


p. 24. 

Candle Power Hour. When illumi¬ 
nating gas—which was the first illum¬ 
inating utility service—was intro¬ 
duced, it was placed in direct compe¬ 
tition with candles. In order that a 
comparison might be made between 
the relative worth of gas and candles, 
the illuminating strength of the then 
new gas was measured in terms of 
the illumination produced by a candle. 
Thus, a 16-candle power gas produced 
16 times as much light as its competi¬ 
tor, the candle. 

The term “candle power hour” 
means the illumination produced by 
one candle power for the period of one 
hour. The number of candle power 
hours available from one dollar’s 
worth of various illuminating services 
and commodities is shown in the 
third column from the right on p. 9. 
This shows at once that the worth of 
50-cent natural gas is much more than 
any other illuminating medium, even 
including the coal oil lamp. 

(3) Geo. A. Burrell, U. S. Bureau of Mines, 
p. 210, Vol. 4, Proceedings of the Natural 
Gas Association of America* 

(4) Report on Natural Gas Service Rend¬ 
ered the City of Columbus, Ohio. By 
Consulting Engineers E. A. Hitchcock 
and Samuel S. Wyer, p. 28. 



Gas Line in Trench 


25 











Gas Regulator. This is a device to step-down the pressure from 
a high pressure line to a line of lower pressure and a typical regu¬ 
lator is shown on this page. Atmospheric pressure bears down on 
the top side of the diaphragm by virtue of the connection through 
the vent pipe. The exact “low” pressure to be maintained on the 
outlet side may be varied by changing the compression on the springs 
above the diaphragm by means of the adjusting screw, as shown. 
The high pressure gas going in expands and acts on the lower side 
of the diaphragm, pushing up the diaphragm against the atmosphere 
and action of the springs. When the diaphragm moves up so that 
the pressure underneath it equals the low pressure for which it is 
set it will close the inlet valve until there is a very slight reduction 
of pressure on the outlet side, when the atmospheric pressure will 
force the diaphragm down and allow more high pressure gas to 
enter- 


GAS PRESSURE REGULATOR 



ii— 


The safety valve is to 
protect the low pressure 
fixtures in case the regu¬ 
lator should stick open. 
An ordinary mercury seal 
is frequently used for 
this. 


In distributing natural gas it is sometimes desirable to take ad¬ 
vantage of the laws discussed on page 22, and permit the use of 
high or medium pressure to get the gas out to the consumer's premi¬ 
ses and at the same time maintain a uniform and adequate low pres¬ 
sure at the consumer’s fixtures by means of a gas regulator- This 
is an engineering matter pure and simple, and no hard and fast 
rules can be given as to when regulators ought or ought not be 
installed on the consumer’s premises. 

Rock Pressure of Natural Gas. This is merely the pressure re¬ 
sulting from nature’s compression of the gas in the underground res¬ 
ervoirs, and it is this pressure that forces the gas out when the res¬ 
ervoirs are tapped by drilled holes. As the reservoirs are emptied, 
the rock pressure decreases, thus lowering the delivering capacity 
of the wells. The following, based on actual records, show the 
average rock pressures in pounds, per square inch, for the respective 


gas fields, and years: 

Ashland, Ohio. 1910, 1050 lbs. 1913, 300 lbs. 

Homer, Ohio... 1902, 750 “ 1912, 175 “ 

Sugar Grove, Ohio. 1895, 800 “ 1912, 100 “ 

Independence, Kas. 1905, 340 “ 1912, 75 “ 

Hogshooter, Okla-... 1910, 550 “ 1912, 100 “ 
































































PER CENT OPEN FLOW 
GAS WELL CAPACITY 
AVAILABLE FOR USE 


Open Flow Capac¬ 
ities of Gas Wells. Un¬ 
fortunately, the well 
capacities that are gen¬ 
erally reported by the 
newspapers and rep¬ 
resented to gullible in¬ 
vestors are the open 
flow capacities when 
the wells are discharg¬ 
ing freely into the at¬ 
mosphere. These open 
flow capacities are very 
much larger than the 
actual delivering ca¬ 
pacities under routine 
ope rating conditions, 
as shown at the right. 
The data shown in this 
illustration were ob¬ 
tained by first determ¬ 
ining the open flow ca¬ 
pacities of representa¬ 
tive wells and then 
passing the gas from 
these wells through 
meters, noting the 
amount that was ac¬ 
tually delivered to the 
gas compressors. 

It is also important 
to note that even after 
the gas reaches the 
con sumer’s premises 
much is lost, due to 
leakage and ineffective 
methods for utilizing 
the gas. 


i > 


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27 






























Magnitude of Natural Gas Business. The following facts, com¬ 
piled by the U. S. Geological Survey, will serve to give the true per¬ 
spective of the natural gas business for the year 1911: 


Industrial gas consumption . 337,000,000 “M” cu. ft. 

Domestic “ “ . 171,000,000 


Total .-. 508,000,000 

Industrial gas consumers. 14,000 

Domestic “ “ . 1,500,000 


Total . 1,514,000 

Number producing wells drilled. 3,226 

dry holes . 1,058 


Total wells drilled . 4,284 

Number of wells abandoned. 2,103 

of wells in use end of 1911 28,428 


of acres owned or under lease 
of acres owned or under lease 
per producing well . 


11,132,000 

390 


Conservation of Natural Gas. The history of the natural gas 
industry of the United States is an appalling record of incredible 
waste. Much more gas is wasted today than is used. This is due 
largely to the fact that the selling prices for natural gas have been 
so low as not to warrant the expenditures necessary for conserving 
the supply. 


“The only wise way for cities to do is to allow gas companies 
sufficient price so they can afford to prospect for, buy and hold gas 
territory for the present and future use. Show the profit, and con¬ 
servation will take care of itself.” “A great many cities have tried 
to lower the gas rates when, as a matter of fact, they should have 
been increased to insure the highest efficiency and to prolong the 
service for years. Whatever may be the opinion of the general public 
in the matter, it is a fact that the rates charged by public utility cor¬ 
porations for natural gas in this country are, in most cases, too low 
rather than too high, and that the most efficient regulation can be 
successfully accomplished only by raising rates to such a point that 
consumers will not waste gas.” (1) 


(1) Technical Paper 38, U. S. Bureau of Mines. Waste in the Production 
and Utilization of Natural Gas, and Means for Their Prevention. By 
Ralph Arnold and Frederick G. Clapp. 

















Regeneration. While no one knows 
exactly how natural gas is formed, yet 
enough facts are known about it to in¬ 
dicate that nature’s process is a slow 
one and that, therefore, even if there 
should be any regeneration in the 
present depleted fields, the rate of re¬ 
generation will be so slow as to make 
new gas pools formed of no interest or 
economic value for many generations. 

Quality and Quantity of Natural 
Gas Fixed by Nature. The quantity 
is always uncertain and the quality 
may. vary through a small range for 
the different fields. However, it is 
not commercially feasible to attempt 
to correct variation in quality by any 
artificial means and furnish a gas that 
is uniform, as may be done in an arti¬ 
ficial gas plant, for the simple reason 
that the cost of doing this would be 
much more than the additional worth 
of the service under such conditions. 

Salt Water in Gas Wells. Salt wa¬ 
ter is found in most natural gas forma¬ 
tions and is always troublesome. 

Large quantities of gas are wasted an¬ 
nually in freeing the wells from salt 
water, which is done by blowing the 
water and gas into the air, as shown 
at the right. As the wells become 
weaker, periodical water pumping 
must be resorted to to keep the wells 
in working shape. 

Regulation of Natural Gas Companies. The inherent right of 
the government • to regulate all public service corporations, ordi¬ 
narily called utilities—of which natural gas is a typical example— 
has been clearly established by the United States Supreme Court 
and other federal courts, and is now regarded as a basic principle 
of American law. (1) 

“When one devotes his property to a use in which the 
public has an interest, he, in effect, grants to the public an 
inte r est in that use, and must submit to be controlled by the 
public for the common good, to the extent of the interest he 
has thus created. He may withdraw his grant by discontin¬ 
uing the use; but, so long as he maintains the use, he must 
submit to the control. (2) 

(1) For a complete discussion of the Governmental power to regulate, Pro¬ 

tection of utilities from adverse regulation, Requirements of regula¬ 
tion, and Relief from oppressive regulation, see Wyer’s Regulation, 
Valuation and Depreciation of Public Utilities. 

(2) Vol. 94, U. S. Supreme Court Reports, pp. 126,130.165, Munn v. Illinois. 

29 



Gas Well Blowing Salt Water. 




However, such powers can be legally exercised only within 
clearly defined limits, as discussed in the fol. owing sections. 

United States Supreme Court View of Regulation Problem. 

“Regulation of Utilities which perform their duties 
under conditions of necessary monopoly will occur with 
greater and greater frequency as time goes on. It is a delicate 
and dangerous function and ought to be exercised with a 
keen sense of justice on the part of the regulating body, met 
by frank disclosure on the part of the Utility to be regu¬ 
lated.” (1) 

“The courts ought not bear the whole burden of saving 
property from confiscation, though they will not be found 
wanting when the proof is clear. The legislatures and sub¬ 
ordinate bodies, to whom the legislative power has been del¬ 
egated, ought to do their part.” (1) 

“Our social system rests largely upon the sanctity of 
private property, and that state or community which seeks 
to invade it will soon discover the error in the disaster which 
follows. The slight gain to the consumer, which he would 
gain from a reduction in the rates charged by Utilities, is as 
nothing compared with his share in the ruin which would 
be brought about by denying to private property its just 
reward, thus unsettling values and destroying confid¬ 
ence.” (1) 

What is Regulation? 

“Utility regulation is the branch of legal science that 
defines the rights and duties existing between the Public and 
Public Utility. The function of regulation is to establish 
and enforce the duties, maintain and protect the rights of 
both, and prevent either from tyrannizing over, or otherwise 
injuring, the other. Thus, regulation preserves private prop¬ 
erty interests by reconciling them with public right. ” (2) . 

“Regulation is not a cudgel to be used by either interest 
over the other, but a code to be observed by both- To be 
permanently effective, it must be just and equitable. The 
State’s duty to protect is just as clear as its duty to control. 
Furthermore, you cannot found and maintain a business 
unless you have a law to protect it.” (2) 

What Regulation is Not. 

“The popular but erroneous conception of regulation is 
that it is an arbitrary governmental power to make a Utility 
yield i :> legislative control or caprice. However, this is far 

(1) Vol. 212 U. S. Supreme Court Reports, p. 18. Knoxville v. Water Co. 

(2) Wyer’s Regulation, Valuation and Depreciation of Public Utilities, pp 9 
and 10. 


30 


from the truth. Such governmental power is not regulation, 
but tyranny, and would result in anarchy.’’ (1) 

“When we consider the nature and the theory of our 
institutions of government, the principles upon which they 
are supposed to rest, and review the history of their devel¬ 
opment, we are constrained to conclude that they do not 
mean to leave room for the play and action of purely per¬ 
sonal and arbitrary powers.” (2) 

Regulation Must Be Based on Predetermined Facts. The arbi¬ 
trary fixing of a rate without a comprehensive investigation of all 
the facts, and the unbiased hearing of evidence regarding those 
facts, is like a court rendering a decision without giving the two 
interested parties an opportunity to argue their respective sides of 
the case. 


“It is not a matter of guesswork or arbitrarily fixing of 
rates. When the constitution provides for the fixing of rates 
for compensation it means reasonable rates and just compen¬ 
sation.” (3) 

“The very use of the term ‘regulation’ implies that in¬ 
vestigation shall be made; that an opportunity to present the 
facts shall be furnished; that, when the facts are established, 
they shall, by the regulating power, be given due considera¬ 
tion ; and that such action as shall be taken in view of these 
facts thus ascertained, shall be just and reasonable.” (4) 

Regulation Must Be Based on Just Compensation. The regu¬ 
lating power of the State is not one “to destroy, or a power to compel 
the doing of service without reward.” (5) 

•ar, 

“If the company is deprived of the power of charging 
reasonable rates for the use of its property, it is deprived 
of the lawful use of its property. In every constitution is 
the guarantee against the taking of private property for pub¬ 
lic purposes without just compensation.” (6) 


(1) Wyer’s Regulation, Valuation and Depreciation of Public Utilities, pp. 

9 and 10. 

(2) Vol. 176 U. S- Supreme Court Reports, p. 172. C. M. & S. P. v. Tomp¬ 

kins. 

(3) Vol. 174 U. S. Supreme Court Reports, p. 750. San Diego L. Co. v. 

National City. 

(4) Vol. 72 Federal Reporter, p. 955. New Memphis G. L. Co. v. Memphis. 

(5) Vol. 143 U. S. Supreme Court Reports, p. 547. Budd v. New York. 

(6) Vol. 169 U. S. Supreme Court Reports, p. 523. Smyth v. Ames. 


31 


JUL 11 1913 


Regulation Must Not Be Arbitrary. 

“The legislature may not, under the guise of protecting 
the public interests, arbitrarily interfere with private busi¬ 
ness or impose unusual or unnecessary restrictions upon 
lawful occupations.” (1) 

Regulation Must Not Confiscate. 

“From what has been said, it is not to be inferred that 
this power of limitation or regulation is itself without limit. 
This power to regulate is not a power to destroy, and limita¬ 
tion is not the equivalent of confiscation.” (2) 

Regulation Must Be Just. 

“No legislature or commission, acting under the author¬ 
ity of the legislature, can arbitrarily and without regard to 
justice and right, establish a tariff of rates which is so unrea¬ 
sonable as to practically destroy the value of property of 
persons engaged in business.” (3) 

What an Equitable Natural Gas Rate Must Provide for. 

I. Recognition of worth of service to consumer. 

II. Recognition of consumer’s service characteristics 

III. Recognition of true investment in plant. This must include 
physical and intangible property and cost of developing business. 

IV. Payment of all operating expenses. 

V. Return on investment that will include, 

1st. Legal rate of interest; 

2nd. Profit commensurate with the hazard involved; 

3rd. Provision to keep the investment at all times intact. 

VI. Each consumer paying for service he receives. This re¬ 
quires : 

1st. The exaction of adequate security for the payment of bills ; 

2nd. Exaction of a minimum charge because, “the minimum rates 
are intended to cover the fixed expenses for those who use so 
little service that the cost of carrying them would not otherwise 
be met.” (4) 

(1) Vol. 152 U. S. Supreme Court Reports, p. 137. Lawton v. Steele. 

(2) Vol. 116 U. S- Supreme Court Reports, p. 331. R. R. Commission Cases. 

(3) Vol.. 134 U. S. Supreme Court Reports, p. 459. C. M. & St. P. v. 

Minnesota. 

(4) Vol. 4 Wisconsin Railroad Commission, p. 89. 


32 



COMPL 

THE OHIO FUEL 



Gas Cooling Basin 


Gas Well 


Gas Well Drilling Rig 




Gas Measuring 
Station in Field 














































































































































































